A second name for adult life
In imperial China, an educated man often had more than one name. His birth name, the ming (名), was given in childhood. When he reached adulthood, he commonly received an additional name, the zi (字), usually translated as “courtesy name” or “style name.” The custom is very old and was well established by the time of the classical period, and it continued in various forms into the early twentieth century.
The practical effect was a division of labor between names. The ming was used by oneself and by elders and superiors. The zi was how peers and younger people addressed an adult man out of respect. Calling a respected equal by his birth name could be seen as rude or overly intimate. The courtesy name let people be formal and friendly at once.
The link to coming of age
Classical ritual texts describe a ceremony in which a young man was “capped” at around age twenty, marking the move into adulthood, and the courtesy name was bestowed at this time. A similar rite for young women, often described as pinning the hair at around fifteen, is associated with the age at which they might become engaged. These coming-of-age rites are known mainly from idealized descriptions of ritual, and actual practice differed by period, region, and social class.
Women’s courtesy names are less well documented than men’s. Some women of educated families had them, but the custom was clearly more prominent among men who took part in public life.
How courtesy names were chosen
A courtesy name was typically linked to the birth name in meaning, so that the two formed a pair. Some patterns were common.
- Synonyms or related ideas. The zi expanded or echoed the sense of the ming.
- Opposites or complements. The zi could balance the ming with a contrasting idea.
- Birth order markers. Characters such as 伯 (bó), 仲 (zhòng), 叔 (shū), and 季 (jì) traditionally mark eldest, second, third, and youngest sons. Confucius, whose personal name was Qiu (丘), had the courtesy name Zhongni (仲尼), where Zhong is the “second son” marker.
- Classical allusions. The chosen characters might refer to a phrase from a well-known text.
Familiar examples show the system at work. The poet Li Bai (李白) is also known by the courtesy name Taibai (太白). The poet Du Fu (杜甫) went by Zimei (子美). The strategist Zhuge Liang (诸葛亮) is known to many readers of the classical novels by his courtesy name Kongming (孔明). In each case, the second name is a thoughtful companion to the first. In the case of Zhuge Liang, both names have the sense of brightness.
Historical writing often uses these names, which is one reason beginners find the sources confusing: one person may appear under his birth name in one passage and his courtesy name in another, and later readers sometimes meet the same figure under several labels.
Art names and other names
The courtesy name was only one of several. Writers and artists often adopted a hao (号), an art name or studio name chosen by themselves, often reflecting an ideal, a favorite place, or a sense of humor. The poet and official Su Shi is widely known by his hao, Dongpo (“East Slope”), taken from a place where he farmed during a period of exile. People could take several hao over a lifetime.
Rulers received posthumous titles and temple names after death, and some officials were remembered by their title or office. Chinese Buddhism added its own monastic names for monks and nuns. The result was a rich naming system in which the name used depended on who was speaking, to whom, and in what setting.
Fading of the custom
With the end of the imperial system and the changes of the early twentieth century, the custom of taking a courtesy name declined. Modern legal names, school registries, and new ideas about equality made the old distinctions less important. Today a courtesy name is mostly encountered in literature and history, and occasionally revived as a cultural interest. A few people choose a similar additional name for scholarly or artistic work, though this is a personal choice, not a general custom.
Nicknames and their echoes
Some of the old functions live on in nicknames and forms of address.
- Milk names. Many children have an affectionate home name, often a repeated syllable such as Beibei, used by family. Birth customs sometimes included choosing one.
- Prefixes. Adding 小 (xiǎo, “little”) or 老 (lǎo, “old”) before a surname, as in Xiao Wang or Lao Li, is a common friendly way to address colleagues and acquaintances, depending on relative age. Adding 阿 (ā) is common in southern regions.
- Titles instead of names. Addressing someone as “Teacher Zhang” or “Manager Li” combines respect and distance, in the same spirit as the courtesy name.
- Foreign-language names. Many people now use an English or other foreign name in international settings, a bit like having a second name for a particular audience.
- Internet handles. Online usernames and nicknames play a role similar to the old art names, letting people present a chosen identity.
The underlying idea is that who you are can be expressed differently depending on the relationship. The older system formalized this with a structured set of names, while modern practice does so more casually.